Police scandals are an untallied cost of the drug war Essay Example for Free

Police scandals are an untallied cost of the drug war Essay The FBI, the Drug Enforcement Administration, and even the Coast Guard have had to admit to corruption. The gravity of the police crimes is as disturbing as the volume. In New Orleans, a uniformed cop in league with a drug dealer has been convicted of murdering her partner and shop owners during a robbery committed while she was on patrol. In Washington, D. C. , and in Atlanta, cops in drug stings were arrested for stealing and taking bribes. New York State troopers falsified drug evidence that sent people to prison. And it is not just the rank and file. The former police chief of Detroit went to prison for stealing police drug-buy money. In a small New England town, the chief stole drugs from the evidence locker for his own use. And the DEA agent who arrested Panamas General Noriega is in jail for stealing laundered drug money. The drug war is as lethal as it is corrupting. And the police and drug criminals are not the only casualties. An innocent 75-year-old African-American minister died of a heart attack struggling with Boston cops who were mistakenly arresting him because an informant had given them the wrong address. A rancher in Ventura County, California, was killed by a police SWAT team serving a search warrant in the mistaken belief that he was growing marijuana. In Los Angeles, a three-year-old girl died of gunshot wounds after her mother took a wrong turn into a street controlled by a drug-dealing gang. They fired on the car because it had invaded their marketplace. The violence comes from the competition for illegal profits among dealers, not from crazed drug users. Professor Milton Friedman has estimated that as many as 10,000 additional homicides a year are plausibly attributed to the drug war. Worse still, the drug war has become a race war in which non-whites are arrested and imprisoned at 4 to 5 times the rate whites are, even though most drug crimes are committed by whites. The Sentencing Research Project reports that one-third of black men are in jail or under penal supervision, largely because of drug arrests. The drug war has established thriving criminal enterprises which recruit teenagers into criminal careers. It was such issues that engaged law-enforcement leaders most of them police chiefs from fifty agencies during a two-day conference at the Hoover Institution in May 1995. Among the speakers was our colleague in this symposium, Mayor Kurt Schmoke, who told the group that he had visited a high school and asked the students if the high dropout rate was due to kids being hooked on drugs. He was told that the kids were dropping out because they were hooked on drug money, not drugs. He also told us that when he went to community meetings he would ask the audience three questions. 1) Have we won the drug war? People laughed. 2) Are we winning the drug war? People shook their heads. 3) If we keep doing what we are doing will we have won the drug war in ten years? The answer was a resounding No. At the end of the conference, the police participants completed an evaluation form. Ninety per cent voted no confidence in the war on drugs. They were unanimous in favoring more treatment and education over more arrests and prisons. They were unanimous in recommending a presidential blue-ribbon commission to evaluate the drug war and to explore alternative methods of drug control. In sum, the tough-minded law-enforcement officials took positions directly contrary to those of Congress and the President. One hopes that politicians will realize that no one can accuse them of being soft on drugs if they vote for changes suggested by many thoughtful people in law enforcement. If the politicians tone down their rhetoric it will permit police leaders to expose the costs of our present drug-control policies. Public opinion will then allow policy changes to decriminalize marijuana and stop the arrest of hundreds of thousands of people every year. The enormous savings can be used for what the public really wants the prevention of violent crime.

The Maesrsk Line Company

The Maesrsk Line Company The Maesrsk Line Company is the global containerized division of the A.P. Moller. The company delivers its services across the world through ocean transportation services. They built their vision and their mission from a strong constant care, heritage of uprightness, and innovation, and this vision has made a path for their business operations since Maersk lines first vessel sailed in 1904. The focus and commitment to this vision made them able to expand the business and become largest ocean carrier of the world. And they are constantly recognized as the most reliable container shipping company. A.P. Moller Maersk Group headquarters at the waterfront in Copenhagen, Denmark The fleet of the maersk line is consist of more than 600 vessels and the total number of containers is more than 3,800,000 TEU*. This shows a comprehensive and reliable coverage worldwide. Maesks Lines Philosophy: We share the same values and principles of business with the maesks line group to be a known, highly respected and world-class group. The founder Mr. A.P. Moller wrote Loss should not hit us, and constant care is needed for it. These words are highly followed and having deep meaning at the company. Word constant care is highly focused on the safety and good health of the employees and others in the industry and environment around them. Our Values: The core values of the Maersk line group are the demonstration n of constant care, regard for our employees, humbleness and uprightness and the protection of the name of the company. The success lies in the fulfillment of these values while carrying out the business. Our business principles: The maersk fundamental business principles is comprises of how do we conduct our business, these principles are applicable on national as well as international legislation. Environment: Our constant care also revolves around the protection of environment. We maximize the use of the resources and handle the waste. The policy regarding environmental protection is we focus on the protection of the environment and environmental consideration is our first priority in conducting our business. Our mission: We provide opportunities in global commerce. Company facts and information: Maersk Line is the leading container shipping company all over the world. It has more than 600 vessels and more than 3, 800, 0000 (a container is 20 feet long). It shows the comprehensive and reliable coverage all over the world. http://www.maerskline.com/globalimage/?path=/media_room/company001 What is container shipping? Containerization, it is large and worldwide system of intermodal cargo transport by using standardized containers. This can be sealed and reloaded onto container ships, trucks and planes, railroad cars. Before the containers were introduced, it was time consuming and expensive to handle the cargo for sea transportation. The containers have brought change in that and it made transport easier and affordable than ever before. All the types of commodities and the type of goods can be carried and loaded in the box; as a result the modernized container shipping has changed the ways of transportation around the world and played a vital role in globalization. Sustainability: Since it is a biggest shipping line in the world, Maersk Line plays a vital role in facilitating efficient and reliable supply chains for many companies. It is recognized that the position of maersk line as an enabler of global trade have brought great opportunities. Global trade of manufactured goods has increased over 100 times, from 95 billion USD to 12 trillion in the last 5 decades. Today 90% of global trade is done through ocean transport and containerization have played very important role in this development. Awards and Recognition: Maersk Line wins Shipping Company of the Year award in the Middle East 14 December 2012 Maersk Line takes home two Global Freight Awards 26 November 2012 Maersk Line wins Lloyds List Environment Award for the Middle East and Indian Subcontinent 19 October 2012 Maersk Line wins Clean Excellence Award 25 September 2012 Maersk Line wins Social Media Campaign of the Year Award 17 September 2012 Maersk Line wins 2012 Best Global Shipping Line Award 7 June 2012 Maersk Lines à gnes Hernà ¡d wins Best Young Manager of the Year 20 February 2012 Maersk Line Wins Shipping Line of the Year Award 1 December 2011 Maersk Line wins two awards at AFSCA 2011 Maersk wins European Business Award 2010 Maersk Line Best Global Shipping Line, Best Shipping Line for Asia-Europe, and Best Green Service Provider Shipping Line 2009. Maersk Line awarded Container Shipping Line of the Year 2007 Maersk Line wins Best Global Shipping Line 2006 Maersk Sealand named Best global shipping line 2005 Best Global Shipping Line award 2004 HR Processes: Recruitment and selection at Maersk Line: Maersk Line strictly follows the Equal employment opportunity Law while hiring candidates for a particular department. They make sure no discrimination take place throughout the procedure of hiring an employee. The advantage of strictly following such law is that Maersk Line never face any problem pertaining to legal complexities and law suits regarding the hiring of candidates. The recruitment process starts with the submission of online application by a candidate and a confirmation pop-up appears on the screen. A reply will be sent within few days so that the applications can be reviewed carefully. Applications are reviewed on the basis of some standard tools so that company can make it sure that a candidate is eligible for giving interviews. The mediums of recruitment which they prefer are: Employment Agencies: These agencies make links between the employers and employees. Internet: The advertisements on different job websites, which capture the a huge pool of candidates who can apply in the company to get the job they are capable for. Employee Referrals Its an internal recruiting method which identifies their potential candidates from the existing workforces social networks. This scheme encourages existing employees to choose the suitable candidate for a particular job from their social networks. A referral bonus is given to referring employee as a reward. It is the most efficient and cost effective method for recruitment. Announcement on the official website They Announce the new jobs on their official website i.e. www.maerskline.com. Website has the particular portion of vacancies and the whole process of how to apply is mentioned. Evaluation of internal labor supply They prefer Internal Labor Supply over External: Those positions which are at higher levels and become vacant due to transfers, deaths, demotions and promotions, are filled by the internal employees who are already familiar with the required managerial roles and responsibilities of those positions. These positions are then posted on the notice boards throughout the PSO offices and are also posted on a software device that is displayed on almost every computer desktop at PSO offices. The interested employees are screened, interviewed and positioned. The criteria of selecting the internal employee depend on requirements of the qualification, age and experience recommended by the line manager Selecting and interviewing Process: Selection process: Advertise Test 1st Interview 2nd Interview HIRE There is a predetermined criterion for hiring of candidates, which includes Logical and personality Test It is the standardized instruments of testing individuals character of psychological makeup. It also reveals the aspects of how logical the candidate is. These tests play an important role in making the selection process easier. Behavioral Interviews These interviews discover the behavior of an interviewee. It reveals that how an interviewee acted in particular situation faced in the past. And it will predict that how he or she will act in the future. In traditional interviews there is a series of question asked, that has the straight forward answers Like what challenges did you face? How did u handle them? Or what are your strengths and weaknesses?But in the behavioral interviews questions are more pointed and more specific than questions in the traditional interview. Like describe any example of a goal reached by you and how did you achieved it? or how did you work effectively when you were under pressure? In order to get selected, candidates must fulfill the criteria they are tested upon. English Grammar: English comprehension Basic Mathematics: Identification of Resources required in particular Department: Need Analysis Departmental Goals Organizational Goals Interviewing Process: Two structured interviews are generally conducted of a candidate at Maersk Line. The first interview is conducted by Human Resources which are focused on the candidates personal skills and capabilities. They use online or hard copy assessment tools to try to form an objective picture of candidates personal characteristics and logical capabilities and a feedback is provided as a part of the process. The second interview is normally conducted by the hiring manager who makes the final hiring decisions and focuses on the specific qualities and skills which are required for the particular job. The whole recruitment process usually takes 4 to 6 weeks; it could be vary depending on the locations. Orientation and Trainings: Training and development is a continuous process, and is designed to bring about a change in attitude of employees with respect to the job they are doing, the people around them, the new procedures, the new techniques and skills that they can use. It is also to make them more conscious of their responsibilities and how to perform them effectively. Therefore, all training is planned and coordinated in a systematic manner by the company, in term so identifying following needs and the skills required in the company. The training and skill development efforts are not confined to a formal class room course but extended in all directions, hence, helping to improve the productivity of employees by imparting useful knowledge and training in the areas, which are neglected, and to add up to the most of their strengths. The growth of the employees is not only a short term vision of enhancing inputs through skills based on training but also an effort for the long term development of employees by education and planned management development inputs. Types of Training at Maersk Line: Orientation Program: Newly inducted employees are given a short orientation course to familiarize them with the company, organizational functions, activities, policies, procedures and programs. This type of training program may be arranged on individual basis or group class room training, depending on number of participants available. The duration and contents of the course is determined to meet the needs of individual concerned in consultation with respective departmental heads. Depending on the type of job, newly hired employees, as well as the promotes assigned to new field of activities, are given on the job training for a period ranging from one week to four weeks, as may be deemed necessary. They make sure that people are empowered to do their job well Indoor simulators: Job knowledge is an essential part of everyones responsibility in any position. Since technology, methodology, processes are changing at a fast pace, it is imperative that employees should learn new skills and techniques through specialized and technical courses organized within the company. Seminars and constructive discussion groups: seminars are conducted to spread the awareness regarding different programs plus it provides a platform for the employer and the employees to socialize. Group case studies play an important role in a constructive discussion between the employees. Practical exposure and experiences: As a trainee in their company an employee will be given a responsibility from day 1 and will be provided with a proper toolkit enabling him to experience a real job. The Maersk group runs a trainee program which provides opportunities to get solid and a broad shipping knowledge. The applicants will be the part of business represented in many countries they are looking for energetic, passionate about shipping and eager to learn individuals who can apply as a Chartering or Operation Trainee in this program. Chartering Trainee: as a chartering trainee, he or she will be responsible for fixing the vessels and cargos. You are to ensure that the vessels sail with the right cargo. Operation Trainee: as an operation trainee employee will be responsible to make sure that the operations of vessels are efficient and safe. And will have to perform following tasks. Issuing voyage instructions Appointing agents Planning bunkering Market voyage analysis Handling insurance and legal matters The trainee will have a broad network of stakeholders including agents, ship managers, port captains and charters. Performance Management: To maintain a sustainable Performance of an employee, Maersk Human resource management measures some of the main factors which has a high impact on employees performances. Work output Personal Competency Goals achieved Performance appraisal Methods at Maersk Line: HR managers should be very careful while selecting methodology used to measure performance of an individual. Maersk Line uses the following methods. MBO Each employee is assign with the specific tasks and goals, and then the progress of those goals is reviewed periodically. Goal setting is done by mainly focusing on the Organizational goals. Secondly the departmental goals are assigned to different departments working in the company, then these goals are discussed with the employees and employees get to know what is expected from them, which defines their individual goals. Finally the progress of these goals is reviewed and employees receive feedbacks. Paired ranking method ranking employees by making a chart of all possible pairs of the employees for each trait and indicating which one is the better employee of the pair. Forced distribution method similar to grading on curve; predetermined percentages of rates are placed in various performance categories. Example: 15% high performers 20% high-average performers 30% average performers 20% low-average performers 15% low performers Goals achieved The process starts when HR throws performance appraisal forms to different departments. This appraisal form has two sides: Employee Development Report-1 (EDR1) Employee Development Report-2 (EDR2) EDR-1 In EDR1 employee he identifies the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), the employees themselves set the objectives and targets for the following year. EDR-2 In EDR2 it is the line manager who rates the employee performance by quoting significant performance achievements and deficiencies for the past year. He indicates what development and training will employee need in the future according to the highlighted areas in the current year. When both of them end up the negotiation then the appraisal form is sent to HR department for further follow up of the respective training or development arrangements. This way the Performance appraisal system reaches to end. These performance appraisal methods are very useful in order to maintain competition and for employees to focus on Key performance indicators (KPIs). And the results extracted from these methods become the basis of promotion, rewards, incentives, bonuses, or layoff and punishment for an employee. Compensation Benefits: Since the Maersk line is very careful in maintaining the equality among their employees, they never face any equity issue. The wages and salaries are set on the basis of employees Education Experience Market conditions Human capabilities The pay raise is given to an employee on the yearly basis. Maersk line negotiate the salary with a candidate on his own terms and conditions only when the job is highly skilled, when company wants to retain its loyal employee and when an employee is an exceptional performer. Career Development at Maersk Line: Maersk line is highly involved in investment in training and education. Over the years A.P. Moller maersk group has its own training system which is implemented over the years and constantly updated. And it is directed towards meeting the global and international organizations particular requirement. Their experience shows that the employee cannot be evaluated solely on the basis of written applications and the examination results. It is essential that the personal impression of the individual behind the papers should be evaluated. Everybody who is formally eligible and has the qualification required for the certain position, can expect to be invited for the interview with Human Resource Department at Maersk line. Maersk Line believes that career development is one of the most important steps in maintaining organizational performance. Maersk Line always helps its employees to build their career and achieve their personal goals by giving their best. And contribution which is made by the company is: Job enlargement Job Rotation Career Path Defined It is important to recognize when the employee is ready for promotion, because if an employee will not be promoted at the right time he might get demotivated. Maersk line recognize such employees when there is availability of position and employees exhibition of competencies for performance in the new role. In case, when the employee leaves the organization when his/her promotion plan is ready, the HR gives someone else dual responsibilities for the time being. PROBLEMS: There are number of potential drawbacks in different stages. One of the greatest concerns regarding relying too much on employee referrals could become the reason of limited diversity at workplace. Hiring from the same existing networks may bound a company to capture diverse pool of candidate, it is good for reducing cost expenditure but on the other hand it could become the big hurdle for the company if the company is relying on such method too heavily. This simple method could have many risks, e.g. when there is a need to fill particular Job the simple question is asked from the existing employees i.e. Is there anyone in your mind who can fill this Job? In response to this question employees may think of the potential benefits for their close ones in their network, rather than thinking constructively for the organization. It is not necessary that every time a new employee comes in through reference is beneficial for the company, it carries risks with it, it could take time to measure his/her effectiveness, and if the new employee is not prod uctive, eventually it will increase the cost of the company and employee will become the liability on the company. Solution: There is certain planning and strategies which can save the company from these problems Communicate the benefits to employees for the successful referrals; give them rewards, incentives and bonuses for the successful referral. This strategy can change the way employees think when they are asked to bring the best candidate for the particular job, now they will think of the best candidate in their mind, who will serve the company most efficiently and effectively. The reward amount should be sufficient enough to motivate the employees who make referrals but not too much that may lead them to make referrals of unqualified candidates. The bonuses should be given in installments because the effectiveness of the new employee cannot be measured in few days, it may take time. In order to be safe from a big loss company should make payments of bonuses in installments. The company may limit the number of bonus qualifying referrals that is made by each employee per year. This will reduce the number of employee referrals per year. The mandatory qualification and specifications should be clearly mentioned and delivered to the employees who make referrals. It will reduce the risk of getting unqualified employees. All the requests for employee referrals should be added to the pool of the candidates. Problem: 3 The advertisement for the Job which is offered by the company is very much important in order to gather a better pool of candidates. Maersk Line is highly dependent on the internet as medium of advertisement for the jobs. They dont prefer NEWSPAPER for the advertisement of their Jobs; as a result they are missing a large number of candidates who prefer Newspapers to find jobs. Solution: In order to get better employees a company must have a large pool of candidate so that it can be used for hiring employees when there is a need to fill the job in emergency. Newspaper plays an important role in spreading awareness among public. Since its an oldest and most popular medium of advertisements civilized and educated people read newspaper as a matter of habit in all over the world. Therefore it has a wide and general appeal. The message can reach a large number of audiences quickly. Choosing the best newspaper is also important, so the Maersk line can improve its pool of candidates by spreading word through Newspaper. Problem: 4 When we asked them; Has it ever happened that an employee might have left the Organization due to some reason; while the HR had plans for his promotion ready? Yes No They chose YES, And then we asked the next question; With Reference to the above scenario, what did the HR do? (If the above Question is answered as a NO, then suppose a scenario with the above details answer this question, what would the HR do?) Promote an immediate subordinate Bring in a Contingent Employee Give someone dual responsibilities for the time being Hire an individual from a pool of already collected CVs. They chose the third option which is Give someone dual responsibilities for the time being It may create a problem we identified, because in case of fulfillment of the job which has been left empty by the previous employee due to any reason, Maersk Line shifts the tasks to other employees. This creates a burden on them. Assigning dual responsibilities to an employee may become the reason of his/her demotivation. The workload given to someone more than his/her capacity may push them towards demotivation. As a result that employee may leave the Job which actually creates a problem for the company. Solution: It is normal that when employees get better options and more secured jobs they switch their jobs. If we see the answer of first question we asked, it shows that maersk line has issues with their employees regarding their promotions. The timing of the promoting employees is not accurate, that is why it leads employees to leave the job right before the promotion. The main problem is to put dual responsibilities on existing employee rather than promoting him/her to that post. The Maersk line lacks the succession planning; they prefer distributing the responsibilities instead of immediate fulfillment of the empty position. Because it is the best time to get benefit, by promoting the employees to fill the job and if the company doesnt find any potential candidate among the existing employees who can fill the post, then they should focus on the pool of the candidates. It ensures that the collected CVs are not useless PROBLEM: 5 Maersk Line doesnt have any well defined strategy to retain their employees who are really important for the companys growth. It usually happens in Maersk Line that employees leave the organization due to some reason; while the HR had plans for their promotion ready. Recruitment is an expensive process, and when employees leave the jobs it is actually a loss in the cost incurred in the recruitment process. SOLUTION: Hiring employees is an important stage but to keep them in your organization is also very important to be safe from the high employee turnover costs. In order to retain the employees, maersk line should create some tactics to retain their employees. These tactics may include: Offering competitive benefits: Providing your employees life insurance, health insurance and a retirement savings Give rewards and incentives Provide some small perks: Conduct stay interviews in addition to exit interviews Promote whenever possible Create open communication Get managers involved:

Precision Teaching: Theories, Implementation and Research

Precision Teaching: Theories, Implementation and Research Tiffany Elmore Introduction to Precision Teaching Precision Teaching (PT) has been applied in many settings and has been greatly successful in increasing learning performance in learners with a wide-range of abilities (White, 1986). It is an approach that measures whether an instructional method is successful in achieving learning goals. It focuses on directly observable behavior, monitors the frequency of the behavior performed in time and analyzes the behavior on a uniform visual display called a Standard Celeration Chart (SCC). Precision Teaching does not determine what curricula should be taught but offers a systematic approach as to the instructional tactics to apply (White, 1986). It bases the curriculum on the child’s performance, in other words, the learner knows best (Lindsley, 1971). The learner’s progress demonstrates whether the program is appropriate for the learner or if changes need to be made to the program. In order to gauge a learner’s progress, the target behavior must directly observable. For example, reading a book aloud can be directly observed to determine the reader’s skill level of the words and comprehension. However, there has been some recent support for using Precision Teaching on inner behaviors. Although, it has been shown to be effective in reducing feelings of depression (Kubina et al., 2006), it is widely used on observable behavior. In Precision Teaching, a learner’s performance is based on behavior frequency which is the average number of responses during each minute of the assessment period (White, 1986). Behavioral fluency is that combination of accuracy plus speed of responding that enables learners to function efficiently and effectively in their natural environments (Binder, 1996). Accuracy alone is not the best gauge of learning progression as it may show skewed improvement in performance. Essentially, by only assessing the accuracy of a learner’s response, an improvement in the learner’s performance is not truly reflected because the responses may be correct but the lack of speed in providing those responses also demonstrates a lack of mastery. Frequency is measured by counts per minute. The speed of a learner’s performance of responding and the accuracy of the responses indicates the learner has either mastered the material, in other words, achieved fluency, or the progress has stalled and the instructional program must be altered. Fluency applies three learning outcomes associated with fluent behavior: Retention, endurance and application (Binder, 1993, 1996 as cited by Kubina, Morrison Lee, 2002). Retention is the ability to perform the behavior after the intervention is terminated. Without retention, the learner loses the ability to perform the behavior. Endurance is the ability to perform a behavior at a specified level over a duration of time (Binder, unpublished doctoral dissertation; Binder, 1996, Binder, Haughton Van Eyk, 1990 as cited by Kubina, Morrison Lee, 2002). For learners who lack endurance may find it difficult to perform behaviors within a 30-second or 1-minute intervals and may ultimately stop performing the desired behaviors. Application is applying some element of a behavior to the entire behavior. For example, if the learner has difficulty in basic writing techniques then the application of increasing fluency in writing spelling words quickly cannot be achieved. The progress of a learner is recorded on a visual display called a Standard Celeration Chart (SCC). The chart is called a standard celeration chart since it always depicts rate of change or progress in a standard manner, regardless of the initial frequency of the behavior (White, 1986). The SCC utilizes a ratio scale which means that all changes in performance will be measured in equal ratios regardless of where they are marked on the chart. The change in frequency from 1 to 2 is the same ratio as 50 to 100 on the SCC. The charts shows whether there is an acceleration, deceleration or no change in behavior. When a behavior frequency doubles, or moves from 1 to 2, it is considered a â€Å"times 2† acceleration. Likewise, when a behavior is halved, or moves from 2 to 1, it is considered a â€Å"divided by 2† deceleration (Lindsley, 1990a). Implementation of Precision Teaching Five steps are involved in the implementation of Precision Teaching: (1) select a task, (2) set an aim (3) count and teach, (4) develop a learning picture and (5) decide what to do (McGreevy, 1983). The first step of implementation is selecting a task for the learner to learn. A task has five parts: (1) a movement that can be counted often each day, (2) a counting period, (3) a correct/incorrect pair, (4) a learning channel set, and (5) a movement that is â€Å"hard to do† (p. II-1). A movement is an observable, physical movement, something that the learner is doing. To make sure the movement occurs often, the learner should have 8-10 learning opportunities per day (p. II-5). If the movement is too hard, then the movement can be changed to a slice back, a step back or a tool movement and, conversely if a movement is too easy it can changed to a leap up movement (p. II-11). A slice back is a smaller movement of the original movement. A step back is an easier movement than the o riginal movement. A tool movement is the prerequisite body movement required to perform the original movement. A leap up movement is a movement that is harder to perform than the original movement. A counting period is amount of time spent each day counting the movement (p. II-12). The period should be long enough so the movement can occur at least 8-10 times. The counting period should not be so long that it proves difficult to count the movement. However, adjustments can be made if the counting period is too long or too short to count the movement. Similarly, Kubina and Yurich (2012) incorporated these two parts into their analysis PT. They suggested that the first step of PT is pinpointing. Pinpointing applies focusing observable behavior and measuring behavior based on frequency. Consider the Dean Man rule that states if a dead man can do it then it is not behavior. The idea is that any directly observable behavior should involve some physical movement. For example, instead of observing a child sitting still in a chair, the teacher can observe the number of times the child gets out the chair. A correct/incorrect pair involves counting the correct movements and incorrect movements (McGreevy, 1983, p. II-15). Instead of focusing on eliminating a movement without adding a replacement movement. For example, rather than decreasing screaming, it best for the learner to increase talking in softer voice. A learning channel set outlines the input channel (received) and output channel (sent). The input can vary from hearing, touching, seeing, smelling, etc and output can include saying, writing, doing, pointing, etc. The learning channel sets â€Å"tells [others] how we are teaching a task† and â€Å"reminds us that are many ways for a [learner] to learn the same movement (McGreevy, 1983, p. II-18). Lastly, the movement must be hard to for the learner to perform (p. II-20). The objective is to learn a new task rather than working on previously learned tasks. By selecting tasks that are hard to do, the learner, provided with ample learning opportunities, will hopefully achieve more corrects and fewer corrects over time and ultimately reach or come close to the aim. The next step in implementing precision teaching is to set an aim (p. III-2). The aim is final chosen objective of the performance likely achieved by a high frequency of correct responses and low to zero frequency of incorrect responses. It is critical that learners learn to perform correct movements in a prompt, smooth and decisive manner. If the learner is having difficulty reaching aim, it may be necessary to change the way the movement is taught, change the learning channel or change the movement as indicated above as a step back, slick back or tool movement. The third step in implementing precision teaching is to count and teach (p. IV-1). This steps requires counting the correct and incorrect responses and teaching the task to the student (p. IV-1). A movement is learned when the learner knows what the correct and incorrect responses are. Each task will be counted and taught daily until the learner reaches aim or the learning picture reflects a need for change. The fourth step in implementing precision teaching is to develop a learning picture. Utilizing the Standard Celeration Chart, the charts displays the correct and incorrect responses provided daily by the learner (p. V-1). The trends of the chart develop the learning picture. The learning picture shows how quickly the responses are increasing or decreasing and predicts whether the learner will achieve aim. The final step in implementing precision teaching is to decide what to do (p. VI-1). Once a learning picture has been revealed, a decision can be made as to whether to continue the current program or make a change. If the learner is not learning or not learning quickly enough, it may be necessary to make changes to the movement (i.e. a slice back), the counting period (i.e. increase 10 seconds to 20 seconds), the learning channel set (i.e. see-write to see-say), the aim (i.e can be lowered), or how the task is taught (i.e. lessons, untimed practice). Precision Teaching in Research Precision Teaching has been applied in a variety of settings and environments. It has proven useful in improving fluency in learners of all ages and all learning abilities. Precision Teaching has been implemented in professional environments as well as classroom settings. In 2002, Binder analyzed the fluency performance in a customer call center. After attending a FluencyBuilding workshops, the manager and supervisors of customer service call center decided to modify their traditional new hire training program. They focused on increasing fluency of the core fundamentals required to perform the job well. Within the fluency-based training, trainees were given lecture and tested on lecture material with a 2-minute quiz (see-mark), a 3-minute hear or see-say providing verbal responses to questions in addition to other fluency-based activities. Daily fluency goals for each exercise were set and each trainees’ performance was monitored against those goals. Trainees recorded their ow n performance and reported their performance to the training coaches. As a result of the fluency-based training, correct performances tripled each week and all participants performed within the fluent range. The participants mastered the core material much faster than in previous training programs and thus reduced the required training during from three weeks to two weeks. New hire trainees were much more fluent in the fundamental skills and knowledge than their veteran counterparts. The dramatic improvements within this program demonstrate that fluency-based programs to be successful in education, training and coaching programs involving all ages of participants within various skill sets. Precision Teaching applied within a classroom setting has proven to increase reading ability, maths skills, and improving academic interventions overall. Chiesa and Robertson (2000) utilized Precision Teaching and fluency-based training to enhance maths skills in five primary school children. The students were selected because their maths skills were not improving at the same pace as their peers. They were in jeopardy of being referred to a remedial program. The training program focused on one observable behavior, the division of two-digit numbers by one-digit. Pre-tests were taken on both multiplication and division skills to determine each student’s skill level. The students were taught how to use digital timers, plot scores and understand learning pictures on the SCC. The students were responsible for completing their maths practice sheets without teacher instruction or assistance. The five students sat together as a group during the maths period and had a personal folder t hat contained the practice sheets, answer key and charts. They completed their practice sheets within a one-minute time probe, each completed sheet was marked by a peer and the correct and error scores were recorded on the SCC. Each week one of the researchers met with the students during maths period while the teacher was working with the rest of the class. The researcher reviewed each student’s progress and determined what changes would be taken. Students that met the aim, moved on to the next level, those who did not meet the aim were provided with skills that were further reduced, or sliced back until they were able to improve to a satisfactory level. At the conclusion of the 12-week training program, the PT group had significantly improved their fluency in the maths skills task. Their responses ranged from 10 to 15 correct in one-minute which was an increase of 10 to 15 responses per minute before the program was implemented. The PT group surpassed all but one of the students in the entire class on the maths skills task. The results show that children performing at a low academic level can improve their learning significantly through Precision Teaching and fluency training. The training program did not require any more time than the allotted maths period and did not provide more instructional assistance or interaction from the teacher. This shows that PT can be beneficial and effective in the mainstream classroom and offers an alternative to expensive and time-consuming academic programs. Precision Teaching has proven to be effective in improving skills in participants with intellectual disabilities as well (Kubina, Morrison Lee, 2002). Schirmer et al. (2007) examined the effectiveness of precision teaching on teaching storytelling to child with autism. The child began working on a hear information-say story program for 10 minutes per day in order to increase the frequency of syllables used. The teacher would describe a scenario to the child and the child would create a story based on the information provided to him. After goals of increased syllable use were met, the teacher moved on a timed practice where the number of correct syllables produced in one minute was recorded. The number of corrects syllables produced increased from 21 per minute to 90 per minute in 5 days. In the last phase, the teacher changed the child’s learning channel from hear-say to see-say. The child was given a photograph and would create a story based on the photograph. Although there was an initial drop in the frequency of correct responses, the child reached the set aim very quickly. Precision Teaching and Practical Application As previous studies have shown, Precision Teaching can be applied in various learning environments with learners of diverse learning abilities. It is an instructional approach that can be applied to any established program or curricula. The main directive guiding success of the learner’s performance IS the learner. Fluency is key to the learner’s progress and any deficits in learning can be easy ascertained with the Standard Celeration Chart. This visual display allows the teacher to easily determine the learner’s progress and either continue with the program on course or make adjustments to program that are most beneficial to the learner. The SCC also helps teacher to predict future progress as to whether the learner will achieve aim or the number of incorrect responses will reach 0. Studies have shown that Precision Teaching can be used in conjunction with other instructional programs and can be effectively applied in both professional and classroom settings wi thout requiring additional time to perform the program in the workplace or classroom. Precision Teaching daily timings are recorded on the SCC but no other data is required. Also, it does not require management or teachers to provide additional instruction outside of the program or curricula already in place. Its versatility in practical application makes Precision Teaching a favorable approach to utilize. References Chiesa, M., Robertson, A. (2000). Precision teaching and fluency training: Making maths easier for students and teachers. Educational Psychology in Practice, 16(3), 297–310. Kubina, R. M., Morrison, R., and Lee, D. L. (2002). Benefits of Adding Precision Teaching to Behavioral Interventions for Students with Autism. Behavioral Interventions, 17, 233-246. Lindsley, O. R. (1971). From Skinner to precision teaching: The child knows best. In J. B. Jordan L. S. Robbins (Eds.), Lets try doing something else kind of thing (pp. 1-11). Arlington, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. Lindsley, O. R. (1990) Precision teaching: By teachers for children.Teaching Exceptional Children, 22, 10-15. McGreevy, P. (1983).Teaching and learning in plain English(2nd. ed.). Kansas City, MO: Plain English Publications. Schirmer, K., Almon-Morris, H., Fabrizio, M. A., Abrahamson, B. and Chevalier, K. (2007). Using Precision Teaching to Teach Story Telling to a Young Child with Autism. Journal of Precision Teaching and Celeration, 23, 23-26. White, O. R. (1986). Precision TeachingPrecision learning.Exceptional Children, 25, 522-534.

Physics of Karate Essay -- physics martial arts fighting

The basic ideas behind any style of karate can in general be reduced to the goal of achieving the most effective movements with the least effort. Specifically, with a strike such as a punch, kick, knife-hand or similar, the karateka attempts to move smoothly through the strikes, conserving energy towards the impact point. When thought about in terms of energy, the most common equation is that of rotational kinetic energy, or KE=(1/2)mv^2 + (1/2)Iω^2. Another way to think about a strike is to attempt to focus as much force as possible at the point of impact. In many strikes, this is facilitated by drawing an almost straight line with the striking tool from the original point of rest to the point of impact. This is based on the fact that the fastest path between two points is a direct line, and greater speed leads to corresponding greater force upon impact, as shown by Newton's Second Law, F=ma. This equation also leads to the conclusion that if increased mass is used in the strike, the force upon impact will be greater. Because of the obviousness of this idea, most strikes are thrown through the rotation of the body in some way, instead of simply from the arms or legs. The body has much more mass, and therefore contributes greatly to achieving a strike that is highly forceful, yet doesn't require nearly as much effort as one thrown from the extremeties. Front Stance Equations: W=mg ÃŽ ¤=IÃŽ ± ÃŽ ¤=Fr; friction F=ÃŽ ¼N The most basic part of a succesful technique is a proper stance that is well grounded and solid. This helps in many ways, including providing the initial push behind a technique, grounding the karateka during the moment of impact, and providing a solid base from which to defend against an attacker. ... ...rown into the rotation, the more energy is contained in the leg at this stage in the kick. The next stage of the kick switches to upwards and forward rotation of the knee around the hip joint. This is also connected to the equations v=ωr and KE=(1/2)mv^2 + (1/2)Iω^2, thus KE=(1/2)m(ωr)^2 + (1/2)Iω^2. In a properly executed kick, this transition is completely smooth, and energy is conserved. This leads to the idea that a vital part of a proper, focused front kick is how quickly and smoothly the back leg is pulled forward. The last step in the kick is the upwards rotation of the foot around the knee joint, the kinetic energy of which is found through exactly the same equations. To ensure that the energy is expended on forward impact rather than upwards, during the rotation around the knee, the hip should be extended forward slightly just before impact.

History of the Computer :: essays papers

History of the Computer The history of the computer can be dated back for years and years and there is still much more to learn and know as we advance our knowledge with this technology. Webster's Dictionary defines computer as, â€Å"any programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data† (A brief 2004). The core word compute in computer has been termed for over 2000 years. In the beginning, a wooden rack holding strings by two horizontal bars was the very first calculator recorded. The beads were manually moved around by the user and were only used by the user who knew the rules of programming in order for the wooden calculator to be accurate. It is said that the wooden calculator was able to do all regular arithmetic (Meyers 2001). The many different parts of a computer as we now know it did not just appear in one machine created by one person. Starting in the 1640’s, many people began to work on machines that would mechanize tasks, with results that we still use today (In the beginning 2004). Records exist of earlier machines, but Blaise Pascal invented the first hand powered commercial calculator that can add numbers entered with dials (Meyers 2001). He is credited with building the first digital calculator. Although attempts to multiply mechanically were made by Gottfried Liebnitz in the 1670s the first true multiplying calculator appears in Germany shortly before the American Revolution (A brief 2004). Charles Xavier created the first successful calculator which was able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide (Meyers 2001). In the early 1800’s, Charles Babbage began a life long quest for a programmable machine. (A brief 2004). He invented machines that are called as calculating engines. Engine number one was the first successful automatic calculator that was able to work on its own. This calculator consisted of over 2000 parts (The early 1996). A large problem that Babbage had would be many engineering problems which would not allow his engines to work correctly. He is remembered and is important to computer history because of his idea for the machines. His basic ideas of how the machine would process information is still used to this day (In the beginning 2004). As the late 1800’s came around, a man named Herman Hollerith developed a computing machine that can read into punched cards.

Bioremediation

BIOREMEDIATION Bioremediation is such type of technology in which microorganism, fungi, bacteria, plant and there is use to convert polluted condition in to original condition. Through bioremediation process microorganism act on pollutant or on chemicals due to which pollution occur and help that thing to come back in its original condition. Bioremediation is an option to offers the possibility to destroy or renders various harmful thing through natural biological activity. PRINCIPLES OF BIOREMEDIATION Bioremediation is the field of environmental biotechnology . y definition bioremediation is the use of microorganism, to degrade environment pollutant in to less toxic form. in this microorganism may be indigenous to a contaminant area or may be isolated from different area and brought to that area. Microorganisms start utilizing toxic substance and convert in to non toxic form from toxic form. In bioremediation metabolic process is also involved through which different enzyme release and act on toxic substances or on contaminants due to this biodegradation occur. When microorganism bought to contaminated or polluted site to enhance degradation that process is called bioaugmentation. For bioremediation to be effective, microorganism must enzymatically attack the pollutants and converts them in to non toxic form. n Bioremediation has its limitation, some contaminants such as chlorinated organic compound and aromatic hydrocarbon are resistant to microbial attack . bioremediation techniques are typically more economical than traditional method. FACTORS OF BIOREMEDIATION These factors include the existence of a microbial population capable of degrading the pollutants, the availability of contaminants to the microbial population, the environment factor (soil,temperature,pH,the presence of oxygen or other electron acceptor, and nutrients. ) MICROBIAL POPULATION FOR BIOREMEDIATION PROCESS Microorganism isolated from from any environment condition. microbes adapt nd grow at subzero temperatures ,as well as extreme heat, in water with excess of oxygen and in anaerobic condition,with the presence of hazardous condition or hazardous compound or any waste stream. the main requirements are an energy source and a carbon source. because of microbes and other biological system ,these can be used to degrade or remediate environmental hazards. Microbes can be divide in to groups according to their activity and condition. Anaerobic- in the absence of oxygen. naerobic bacteria cannot used frequently as a aerobic bacteria. There is an increa sing interest in anaerobic bacteria use for bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)in river sediment,ination of dechlorination of solvent trichloroethylene(TCE),and chloroform Lingninolytic fungi-fungi such as the white rot fungus phanaerochaete chrysosporium have the ablity to degrade an extremely diverse range of persistent or toxic environmental pollutants. Common substrate used include starw,sawdust,or corn cobs. Methylotrophs-aerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for carbon and energy. the initialenzyme in the pathway for aerobic degradation,methane monooxygenase,has a broad substrate range and active against a wide range of compounds ,including the chlorinated aliphatics trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethane For degradationnit is necessary that bacteria and contaminant in proper contact and in proper amount. Class of contaminants |Specific examples |Aerobic |Anaerobic |More potential sources | |Chlorinated solvents |Trichloroethylene | |+ |Drycleaners | | |Perchloroethylene | | |Chemical manufacture Electrical | |Polychlorinated biphenyls |4-Chlorobiphenyl | |+ |manufacturing Power station | | |4,4-Dichlorobiphenyl | | |Railway yards Timber treatment | | | | | |Landfills | |Chlorinated phenol |Pentachlorophenol | |+ | | |â€Å"BTEX† Benzene Toluene |+ |+ |Oil production and storage | | |Ethylbenzene Xylene | | |Gas w ork sites | | | | | |Airports | | | | | |Paint manufacture Port | | | | | |facilities Railway yards | | | | | |Chemical manufacture | |Polyaromatic hydrocarbons |Naphthalene Antracene |+ | |Oil production and storage | |(PAHs) |Fluorene Pyrene | | |Gas work sites Coke plants | | |Benzo(a)pyrene | | |Engine works Landfills | | | | | |Tar production and storage | | | | | |Boiler ash dump sites Power | | | | | |stations | | |Atrazine Carbaryl | | |Agriculture | | |Carbofuran Coumphos | | |Timber treatment plants | | |Diazinon Glycophosphate | | |Pesticide manufacture | |Pesticides |Parathion Propham |+ |+ |Recreational areas Landfills | | |2,4-D | | | | ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Nutrients Although the microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for bioremediation of the site. Their growth and activity must be stimulated. Biostimulation usually involves the addition of nutrients and oxygen to help indigenous microorgan- isms. These nutrients are the basic building blocks of life and allow microbes to create the necessary enzymes to break down the contaminants. All of them will need nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon (e. g. , see Table 2). Carbon is the most basic element of living forms and is needed in greater quantities than other elements. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen it constitutes about 95% of the weight of cells. Table 2 Composition of a microbial cell. ElementPercentageElementPercentage |Carbon |50 |Sodium |1 | |Nitrogen |14 |Calcium |0,5 | |Oxygen |20 |Magnesium |0,5 | |Hydrogen |8 |Chloride |0,5 | |Phosphorous |3 |Iron |0,2 | |Sulfur |1 |All others |0,3 | |Potassium |1 | | | ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Nutrients Although the microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for bioremediation of the site. Their growth and activity must be stimulated. Biostimulation usually involves the addition of nutrients and oxygen to help indigenous microorgan- isms. These nutrients are the basic building blocks of life and allow microbes to create the necessary enzymes to break down the contaminants. All of them will need nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon (e. g. , see Table 2). Carbon is the most basic element of living forms and is needed in greater quantities than other elements. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen it constitutes about 95% of the weight of cells. Table 2 Composition of a microbial cell. ElementPercentageElementPercentage Carbon |50 |Sodium |1 | |Nitrogen |14 |Calcium |0,5 | |Oxygen |20 |Magnesium |0,5 | |Hydrogen |8 |Chloride |0,5 | |Phosphorous |3 |Iron |0,2 | |Sulfur |1 |All others |0,3 | |Potassium |1 | | | Microbial growth and activity are readily affected by pH, temperature, and moisture. Although microorganisms have been also isolated in extreme conditions, most of them grow optimally over a nar- row range, so that it is important to achieve optimal conditions. If the soil has too much acid it is possible to rinse the pH by adding lime. Temperature affects bio- chemical reactions rates, and the rates of many of them double for each 10  °C rise in temperature. Above a certain temperature, however, the cells die. Plastic covering can be used to enhance solar warming in late spring, summer, and autumn. Available water is essential for all the living organisms, and irrigation is needed to achieve the optimal moisture level. The amount of available oxygen will determine whether the system is aerobic or anaerobic. Hydrocarbons are readily degraded under aerobic conditions, whereas chlorurate compounds are degraded only in anaerobic ones. To increase the oxygen amount in the soil it is possible to till or sparge air. In some cases, hydrogen peroxide or magnesium peroxide can be introduced in the environment. Soil structure controls the effective delivery of air, water, and nutrients. To improve soil structure, materials such as gypsum or organic matter can be applied. Low soil permeability can impede move- ment of water, nutrients, and oxygen; hence, soils with low permeability may not be appropriate for in situ clean-up techniques. BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES Different techniques are employed depending on the degree of saturation and aeration of an area. In situ techniques are defined as those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site with minimal distur- bance. Ex situ techniques are those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). Bioaugmentation techniques involve the addition of microorganisms with the ability to degrade pollutants. In situ bioremediation These techniques [11,12] are generally the most desirable options due to lower cost and less disturbance since they provide the treatment in place avoiding excavation and transport of contaminants. In situ treatment is limited by the depth of the soil that can be effectively treated. In many soils effective oxy- gen diffusion for desirable rates of bioremediation extend to a range of only a few centimeters to about 30 cm into the soil, although depths of 60 cm and greater have been effectively treated in some cases. The most important land treatments are: Bioventing is the most common in situ treatment and involves supplying air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the indigenous bacteria. Bioventing employs low air flow rates and provides only the amount of oxygen necessary for the biodegradation while minimizing volatiliza- tion and release of contaminants to the atmosphere. It works for simple hydrocarbons and can be used where the contamination is deep under the surface. In situ biodegradation involves supplying oxygen and nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions through contaminated soils to stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. It can be used for soil and groundwater. Generally, this technique includes conditions such as the infil- tration of water-containing nutrients and oxygen or other electron acceptors for groundwater treatment. Biosparging. Biosparging involves the injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contam- inants by naturally occurring bacteria. Biosparging increases the mixing in the saturated zone and there- by increases the contact between soil and groundwater. The ease and low cost of installing small-diam- eter air injection points allows considerable flexibility in the design and construction of the system. Bioaugmentation. Bioremediation frequently involves the addition of microorganisms indigenous or exogenous to the contaminated sites. Two factors limit the use of added microbial cultures in a land treatment unit: 1) nonindigenous cultures rarely compete well enough with an indigenous population to develop and sustain useful population levels and 2) most soils with long-term exposure to biodegrad- able waste have indigenous microorganisms that are effective degrades if the land treatment unit is well managed. Ex situ bioremediation Ex situ bioremediation These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground. Landfarming is a simple technique in which contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a pre- pared bed and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants. In general, the practice is limited to the treatment of superficial 10–35 cm of soil. Since landfarming has the potential to reduce monitoring and maintenance costs, as well as clean-up liabilities, it has received much atten – leum hydrocarbons they are a refined version of landfarming that tend to control physical losses of the contaminants by leaching and volatilization. Biopiles provide a favorable environment for indigenous aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Bioreactors. Slurry reactors or aqueous reactors are used for ex situ treatment of contaminated soil and water pumped up from a contaminated plume. Bioremediation in reactors involves the pro- cessing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through an engineered con- tainment system. A slurry bioreactor may be defined as a containment vessel and apparatus used to cre- ate a three-phase (solid, liquid, and gas) mixing condition to increase the bioremediation rate of soil- bound and water-soluble pollutants as a water slurry of the contaminated soil and biomass (usually indigenous microorganisms) capable of degrading target contaminants. In general, the rate and extent of biodegradation are greater in a bioreactor system than in situ or in solid-phase systems because the contained environment is more manageable and hence more controllable and predictable. Despite the advantages of reactor systems, there are some disadvantages. The contaminated soil requires pre treat- ment (e. g. , excavation) or alternatively the contaminant can be stripped from the soil via soil washing or physical extraction (e. g. , vacuum extraction) before being placed in a bioreactor. Table 4 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of bioremediation. Table 4 Summary of bioremediation str ategies. Technology |Examples |Benefits |Limitations |Factors to consider | |In situ |In situ bioremediation |Most cost efficient |Environmental constraints |Biodegradative abilities of | | |Biosparging Bioventing |Noninvasive Relatively |Extended treatment time |indigenous microorganisms | | |Bioaugmentation |passive Natural attenuation |Monitoring difficulties |Presence of metals and | | | |processes | |other inorganics Environmental| | | |Treats soil and water | |parameters Biodegradability of| | | | | |pollutants Chemical solubility| | | | | |Geological factors | | | | | |Distribution of pollutants | |Ex situ |Landfarming Composting |Cost efficient |Space requirements |See above | | |Biopiles |Low cost |Extended treatment time | | | | |Can be done on site |Need to control abiotic | | | | | |loss | | | | |Mass transfer problem | | | | | |Bioavailability limitation| | |Bioreactors |Slurry reactors |Rapid degradation kinetic |Soil requires excavation |See above Bioaugmentation | | |Aqueous reactors |Optimized environmental |Relatively high cost |Toxicity of amendments Toxic | | | |parameters |capital |concentrations of contaminants| | | |Enhances mass transfer |Relatively high operating | | | | |Effective use of inoculants |cost | | | | |and surfactants | | | Advantages of bioremediation †¢Bioremediation is a natural process and is therefore perceived by the public as an acceptable waste treatment process for contaminated material such as soil. Microbes able to degrade the con- taminant increase in numbers when the contaminant is present; when the contaminant is degrad- ed, the biodegradative population declines. The residues for the treatment are usually harmless products and include carbon dioxide, water, and cell biomass. †¢Theoretically, bioremediation is useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of contam- inants. Many compounds that are legally considered to be hazardous can be transformed to harm- less products. This eliminates the chance of future liability associated with treatment and dispos- al of contaminated material. †¢Instead of transferring contaminants from one environmental medium to another, for example, from land to water or air, the complete destruction of target pollutants is possible. †¢Bioremediation can often be carried out on site, often without causing a major disruption of nor- mal activities. This also eliminates the need to transport quantities of waste off site and the poten- tial threats to human health and the environment that can arise during transportation. Bioremediation can prove less expensive than other technologies that are used for clean-up of hazardous waste. Disadvantages of bioremediation †¢Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. Not all compounds are sus- ceptible to rapid and complete degradation. †¢There are some concerns that the products of biodegradation may be more persistent or toxic than the parent compound. †¢Biological processes are often highly specific. Important site factors required for success include the presence of metabolically capable microbial populations, suitable environmental growth con- ditions, and appropriate levels of nutrients and contaminants. It is difficult to extrapolate from bench and pilot-scale studies to full-scale field operations. †¢Research is needed to develop and engineer bioremediation technologies that are appropriate for sites with complex mixtures of contaminants that are not evenly dispersed in the environment. Contaminants may be present as solids, liquids, and gases. †¢Bioremediation often takes longer than other treatment options, such as excavation and removal of soil or incineration. †¢Regulatory uncertainty remains regarding acceptable performance criteria for bioremediation. There is no accepted definition of â €Å"clean†, evaluating performance of bioremediation is difficult, and there are no acceptable endpoints for bioremediation treatments. PHYTOREMEDIATION Although the application of microbe biotechnology has been successful with petroleum-based con- stituents, microbial digestion has met limited success for widespread residual organic and metals pol- lutants. Vegetation- based remediation shows potential for accumulating, immobilizing, and transform- ing a low level of persistent contaminants. In natural ecosystems, plants act as filters and metabolize substances generated by nature. Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that uses plants to remove contaminants from soil and water [14–16]. The term â€Å"phytoremediation† is relatively new, coined in 1991. Its potential for encouraging the biodegradation of organic contaminants requires further research, although it may be a promising area for the future. We can find five types of phytoremediation techniques, classified based on the contaminant fate: phytoextraction, phytotransformation, phytostabilization, phytodegradation, rhizofiltration, even if a combination of these can be found in nature. Phytoextraction or phytoaccumulation is the process used by the plants to accumulate contami- nants into the roots and aboveground shoots or leaves. This technique saves tremendous remediation cost by accumulating low levels of contaminants from a widespread area. Unlike the degradation mech- anisms, this process produces a mass of plants and contaminants (usually metals) that can be transport- ed for disposal or recycling. Phytotransformation or phytodegradation refers to the uptake of organic contaminants from soil, sediments, or water and, subsequently, their transformation to more stable, less toxic, or less mobile form. Metal chromium can be reduced from hexavalent to trivalent chromium, which is a less mobile and noncarcinogenic form. Phytostabilization is a technique in which plants reduce the mobility and migration of contami- nated soil. Leachable constituents are adsorbed and bound into the plant structure so that they form a stable mass of plant from which the contaminants will not reenter the environment. Phytodegradation or rhizodegradation is the breakdown of contaminants through the activity existing in the rhizosphere. This activity is due to the presence of proteins and enzymes produced by the plants or by soil organisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi. Rhizodegradation is a symbiotic rela- tionship that has evolved between plants and microbes. Plants provide nutrients necessary for the microbes to thrive, while microbes provide a healthier soil environment. Rhizofiltration is a water remediation technique that involves the uptake of contaminants by plant roots. Rhizofiltration is used to reduce contamination in natural wetlands and estuary areas. In Table 5, we can see an overview of phytoremediation applications. Table 5 Overview of phytoremediation applications. TechniquePlant mechanismSurface medium PhytoextractionUptake and concentration of metal viaSoils direct uptake into the plant tissue with subsequent removal of the plants PhytotransformationPlant uptake and degradation of organicSurface water, groundwater compounds PhytostabilizationRoot exudates cause metal to precipitateSoils, groundwater, mine tailing and become less available PhytodegradationEnhances microbial degradation inSoils, groundwater within rhizosphere rhizosphere RhizofiltrationUptake of metals into plant rootsSurface water and water pumped PhytovolatilizationPlants evaportranspirate selenium, mercury,Soils and groundwater and volatile hydrocarbons Vegetative capRainwater is evaportranspirated by plantsSoils to prevent leaching contaminants from disposal sites Phytoremediation is well suited for use at very large field sites where other methods of remedia- tion are not cost effective or practicable; at sites with a low concentration of contaminants where only polish treatment is required over long periods of time; and in conjunction with other technologies where vegetation is used as a final cap and closure of the site. There are some limitations to the technology that it is necessary to consider carefully before it is selected for site remediation: long duration of time for remediation, potential contamination of the vegetation and food chain, and difficulty establishing and maintaining vegetation at some sites with high toxic levels. .

The Waste Land

Eliot expressed all of these feelings In his poem. In fact. The Waste Land soon became known as â€Å"the work that best expressed the mood of a postwar generation disillusioned by the loss of ideals and faith in progress† (Duper 7). The Waste Land does not, however, express only despair in the condition of modern society. Conscious of its actual degradation, Eliot sought a meaner to escape it. He did a great deal of research concerning fertility rituals and myths and indicated that â€Å"his reading In these and similar studies revived a way of seeing behind presenters actions a substratum of past beliefs and practices that. Hough now lost to consciousness, continue to Inform our daily lives In hidden but significant ways† (Duper 8). As Dolmen Schwartz states, â€Å"Elite's theme is the rehabilitation of a system of beliefs, known but now discredited† (209). Eliot felt that man needed to be brought back to these old beliefs, but was wary of stating this openly, fearing a direct approach would prevent the poem from being read. The modern man had become too hardened to accept Christian principles directly and, Instead, must gradually be made aware of his condition.In order to achieve this, Eliot chronicled his 1 Nihilism: (from the Latin nil, nothing) a philosophical position which argues that the world, especially past and current human existence, is without meaning. Journey of realization and revelation in the form of The Waste Land, using the protagonist of the poem to represent his own passage to spiritual awareness and to convince man of the degradation of society and the need for reform. The poem begins with the protagonist musing on spring: April is the cruelest month, breedingLilacs out of the dead land, mixing Memory and desire, stirring Dull roots with spring rain. Winter kept us warm, covering Earth in forgetful snow, feeding A little life with dried tubers. (1, 1-7)2 This passage is an indication of the extent of the degradation of man. He has sunken so low Into depravity that he prefers to live a life of ignorance and to disregard the fact that he Is living a half-life. April, the month In which spring begins, is no longer a joyous time in which new life is celebrated, but a cruel time of rebirth that reminds man that his own life is terribly empty.The protagonist then addresses man directly, stating, â€Å"you know only / a heap of broken images, where the sun beats, / and the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relief, / and the dry stone no sound of water† (l, 21-24). He then invites us into â€Å"the shadow of this red an allusion to the got Isaiah, in which the Messiahs torture coming is likened to â€Å"an hiding place from the wind, and a covert from the tempest; as rivers of water in a dry place, as the shadow of a great rock in a weary land† (KAVA Bible, Sis. 32:2).Under this red rock, he will show the way to escape the mundane life man has roughs upon himself. The speaker th en recalls the time he first realized the emptiness of his life. In the 2 Citations from the poem are taken from The Waste Land, De. Michael North (New York: Norton, 2001) springtime, he says, he gave his lover hyacinths. Looking at her, with her arms full of flowers and her hair dripping wet, he expected to see happiness and fulfillment, but saw nothing. At this point, he realizes that true Joy cannot be found in transitory things.The world holds nothing for him- â€Å"Ode' undo leer ads Mere† (1, 42)-desolate and empty is the sea. It is possible that Eliot came to this same realization through a similar cause, as he and his wife had a very unhappy relationship. The protagonist then takes us on a Journey through society, a Journey that illustrates the full extent of human degradation and spiritual emptiness. In the first scene of â€Å"A Game of Chess,† a wealthy couple is shown at home, living meaningless lives composed of dull routines. Their relationship is forced and artificial, each so self-absorbed that neither can communicate with the other.In the second scene of this section, the extent of gradation is further revealed. A woman is in a pub discussing with a group of friends the advice she gave her friend Ill when Oil's husband, Alfred, was discharged from military service. She says she pointed out that Alfred, having been in the service for four years, â€Å"wants a good time† and told Ill, â€Å"if you don't give it to him, there's others 148-149). She then rebuked Ill for looking â€Å"so antique† (II, 156), and Ill replied that it was because she had an abortion. She had already given birth to five children and did not want more.In this scene, sex is reduced to a duty a wife must reform to please her husband, and children are an obligation, not a Joy. In â€Å"The Fire Sermon,† the depravity of man is further illustrated. A woman is shown in her apartment eating dinner with her lover. Their encounter after dinner is described thusly: The time is now propitious, as he guesses, The meal is ended, she is bored and tired, Endeavourers to engage her in caresses Which still are unimproved, if undesired Flushed and decided, he assaults at once; Exploring hands encounter no defense; His vanity requires no response, And makes a welcome of indifference. Ill, 235-242) When he leaves, â€Å"her brain allows one half-formed thought to pass: ‘Well now that's done: and I'm glad it's 252) This attitude of indifference can be seen as even more depraved than lust and expresses the apathetic attitude of many after the war. However, there is still hope. Sometimes, the protagonist can hear â€Å"the pleasant whining of a mandolins† (Ill, 261) near the walls of Magnums Martyr, a church â€Å"where fishermen lounge at noon† (Ill, 263). This brief glimpse of hope is an indication of the source of a meaningful life. The â€Å"fishermen† remind us of Jesus' disciples, the â€Å"fishers f men† (KAVA Bible, Matt. :19), who were exhorted to Journey throughout the earth, telling men tot the gospel o t Christ and the way to salvation. In â€Å"Death by Water,† TN way of escape from the degradation of society is revealed. The protagonist tells us of Please the Phoenician, who experienced death by water, which can be seen as a representation of baptism, the shedding of the sinful nature, and the acceptance of the â€Å"Living Water† (KAVA Bible, John 7:38) of Christ. Please is now dead to the world. He has forgotten â€Å"the cry of gulls, and the deep sea swell / and the profit and the joss† (V, 313-314).He is no longer affected by the sin of modern society but lives separate from it. The narrator then addresses the reader: â€Å"Gentile or Jew / O you who turn the wheel and look to windward, / Consider Please, who was once handsome and tall as you† (V, 319-321). With this address, the narrator reminds us that we are as mortal as Please, and we also require this â€Å"Living Water. † This passage is a direct contrast to â€Å"The Fire Sermon† quenching the fires of lust with the â€Å"Living Water† that provides spiritual cleansing. To truly experience life, our sinful nature must die.The protagonist concludes by explaining his own realization that, like â€Å"Jerusalem Athens Alexandria† (V, 374), modern society is deteriorating: â€Å"London Bridge is falling down† (V, 426). At this time, he has a decision to make: â€Å"Shall I at least set my lands in order? † (V, 425) Will he avoid the decay of society and abandon his meaningless life for one with significance? His decision is evident in the last stanza of the poem. Amid the madness of the ruin of society, the protagonist finds â€Å"Shanties shanties shanties† (V, 433)-a peace that passes understanding.Like Please, he has chosen to bid farewell to his dishonest, worldly self and surrender to the Living Water th at has the power to quench the fires of corruption. It is through this passage that Eliot suggests his own discovery and his decision to experience the peace that passes understanding by surrendering the corrupt part of himself. The poem, composed of seemingly fragmented ideas and stream-of-consciousness thoughts, ends on a note of peace, a peace that Eliot has attained and wishes modern man to experience. Works Cited Duper, Robert S.